'-1 prefix
[NOUN FORMATIVE]
Attaches to roots in order to create a noun (drops when roots are compounded)
• ''íi wood
[ '- 'NOUN FORMATIVE' 'ii 'WOOD']
• 'há water
[ '- 'NOUN FORMATIVE' ha 'WATER']
• 'nyá me
[ '- 'NOUN FORMATIVE' nya '1ST PERSON']
'-2 prefix
1 [1st person intransitive]
Attached to the beginning of verbs to change the meaning to I VERB or we VERB. While one may include the word ‘nyách 'I' to add clarity to the sentence, it is not required as this morpheme inherently represents that word. (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• ''Ónvi. I am trapped.
[ '- '1st person intransitive' 'ónvi 'to be trapped']
• Ich'rávk 'uukwáma. I feel sick.
[ Ich 'STEM.sick' '- '1st person intransitive' ráv 'STEM.sick' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person intransitive' uukwá 'to feel' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
2 [1st person subject - 3rd person object]
Attached to the beginning of verbs to change the meaning to I VERB him/her/it or we VERB him/her/it. It conveys the meanings of “I” and “him/her/it” so it is not necessary to say those words unless a speaker wants to be more specific or clear. (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• Allen suuchácha ''úuma. I saw Allen's shadow.
[ Allen 'Allen' + shuuchách 'shadow' + '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' 'úu 'to see' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
• Kwéeny páya spóchk wal'yíichk. We want to know everything.
[ 'kwée 'something' -ny 'DEMONSTRATIVE' + páya 'all' + spó 'to know' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + wal 'STEM.want' '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' yíi 'STEM.want' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER']
3 [1st person possession (inalienable nouns)]
Used to construct possessive meaning for nouns that are body parts, kinship terms, and articles of clothing, and translates to English as “my” or “our”. Possession of these nouns is treated very similarly to verbs and share morphemes with their equivalent verb use. This means that the inclusion of pronouns, like ‘nyá 'me', may be included to further clarify meaning but are not required. (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• 'Mlqí nyskwíink walyíima. He wants to wring my neck.
[ '- '1st person possession (inalienable nouns)' mlqí 'neck' + ny- '3rd person subject - 1st person object' + skwíini 'to lock' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + walyíi 'to want to' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
-a1 suffix
[NOUN ABSOLUTIVE]
This is added to the end of a root to create a noun meaning from the root(s). It appears on most nouns whose roots do not end with another vowel or extra morphology, such as the case marker. (When a word containing this morpheme receives additional suffixes, the -a is dropped)
• 'ichmáva food
[ 'ícha 'noun form of 'í' máavi 'to be edible (of any food)' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
• sháwa baby
[ shaw 'YOUNG' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
• théqa leaf
[ theq 'LEAF' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
-a2 suffix
[VOCALIC INCREMENT]
Lends the suffix it is attached to more assertive illocutionary force
• 'Ínohm ny'úuyk wárha I will see you later (later, I will see you again)
[ 'ínohm 'later' + ny- '1st person subject - 2nd person object' 'úu 'to see' -y 'epenthetic [j]' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + wári 'again' -h 'IRREALIS' -a 'VOCALIC INCREMENT']
-ch1 suffix
[PLURALIZER]
Indicates that the doer of the action or the thing being described is plural when suffixed to a verb. This morpheme also indicates that there are multiple of a noun when suffixed to a noun.
• 'Wávk yáamchkny. They came out of the house.
[ 'wá 'house' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -k 'DIRECTIONAL' + yáami 'to go' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' -kny 'COMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• Halá yákm 'yáamchma. We went one month ago. / It has been one month since we went.
[ halá yáki 'to be one month' -m 'TEMPORAL LOCATIVE' + '- '1st person intransitive' yáami 'to go' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
• Hamánych smáachk kmólchma. The poor babies are sleeping.
[ hamány 'child' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + smáa 'to sleep' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + kmóli 'to do (of a dear thing, a poor thing)' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
-ch2 , -che suffix
[SUBJECT MARKER]
This morpheme is suffixed to the main subject of a sentence, i.e. the doer of the action or the one being described by the verb. When a verb expresses an action that one person or thing is doing to another person or thing, this morpheme is attached to the one doing the action, not the one being affected.
• 'nyách I
[ '- 'NOUN FORMATIVE' nya '1ST PERSON' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE']
• Jackche kweeswáare ny'wíwa ya'háanma. Jack fixed my record player.
[ Jack 'Jack' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + 'kwée 'something' swáari 'to sing' -e 'ARTIFACT NOMINALIZER' + ny- 'POSSESSIVE' '- '1st person possession (inalienable nouns)' wíi 'belonging' -w 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE' + yaháani 'to fix' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
• Wávche tqápma. The house is crowded.
[ 'wá 'house' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + tqápi 'to be crowded' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
-ch3 suffix
[NOMINALIZER]
Creates nouns out of verbs that do not end in the verb absolutive -i. It is most often followed by the noun absolutive morpheme -a. (often followed by absolutive -a or other nominal morphology)
• 'ícha noun form of 'í
[ 'í 'to say' -ch 'NOMINALIZER' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
• imácha dance
[ imá 'to dance' -ch 'NOMINALIZER' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
• múu vwék yúcha shepherd
[ mú 'name of a constellation' + vwé 'to watch' + yúcha 'noun form of yú']
-ch4 suffix
[ITERATIVE; HABITUAL]
This morpheme may be used to indicate that an action is, or was, repeated. This usage is often translated into English as 'always', 'frequently', or 'generally', though it may be used to indicate that something is a common occurrence without a designated English equivalent. This is often differentiated from the simple plural use by attaching the indefinite -a following this morpheme, though that is not required.
(attached directly to verb stem but must be followed by 'absolutive' marker -i or aspect marker)
• 'íchi always
[ 'í 'to say' -ch 'iterative, habitual aspect' -i 'absolutive verb, denominalizer, recursive']
• Kth'ée ‘máacha. I eat berries (often).
[ kth'ée 'berry' + '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' máa 'to eat (something)' -ch 'ITERATIVE; HABITUAL' -a 'INDEFINITE']
• Tú 'mánk 'mánm 'yúchkm. I'm always falling down.
[ tú 'just' + '- '1st person intransitive' máni 'to fall ' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person intransitive' máni 'to fall ' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person intransitive' yú 'to be' -ch 'ITERATIVE; HABITUAL ASPECT' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
ch-1 prefix
[CAUSATIVE]
Indicates that the action being done by the verb or the state being described by the verb is being caused by the subject, or the doer of the action. This is often translated to English as “to make [VERB]”.
• chvskwíi to stand (something) up
[ ch- 'CAUSATIVE' vskwíi 'to stand']
• chyáami to let go
[ ch- 'CAUSATIVE' yáami 'to go']
ch-2
[ITERATIVE]
When this ch- is attached to a verb or root, it indicates that action of the verb is, or was, repeated multiple times in one instance.
• chwírwíri to wag (one's tail)
[ ch- ‘ITERATIVE' ríwríwi ‘to wag (of a tail)']
-e , -ye , -'e , -he suffix
1 [SPATIO-TEMPORAL LOCATIVE]
Used to derive meanings related to a specific location, whether in space or in time. It appears as -ye when attached to the end of a word or root that ends with a vowel. It may appear as -'e or -he, though instances of this are more rare than the commonly used forms of -e and -ye.
• 'há kvyáaye across the river
[ 'há 'water' + kvyáay '?' -e 'SPATIOTEMPORAL LOCATIVE']
• nyyéktho 'síta smáame the day after tomorrow
[ nyéektho 'tomorrow' + 'síta 'once' + smáa 'to sleep' -m 'TIME ADVERBIAL' -e 'SPATIOTEMPORAL LOCATIVE']
• vké'e where
2 [ARTIFACT NOMINALIZER]
Attaches to verbs and roots that describe an action in order to create the meaning of “object that does VERB.” When this morpheme is attached to a verb that ends in -i, the -i is dropped in favor of this -e.
(appears as -ye when following a vowel and often sounds like a mixture of the letters -i- in “police” and -i- in “bit” or it may sound like a mixture of the letters -i- in “police” and -e- in “bet”)
• 'ichmáye table
[ 'ichmáa 'to eat' -e 'ARTIFACT NOMINALIZER']
• 'iichkyáte axe
[ 'ii 'WOOD' + ch- 'CAUSATIVE' kyat 'CHOP' -e 'ARTIFACT NOMINALIZER']
• 'o'úule light
[ 'o'úuli 'to light (a lamp), put on (a light)' -e 'ARTIFACT NOMINALIZER']
3 [VOCATIVE]
Used to invoke or address a person or thing.
• hwáke partner
[ hwáki 'to be with as a pair (with someone, or with a discrete group)' -e 'VOCATIVE']
• paatpúye witch doctor (for making spells)
[ 'páa 'person' tpúyi 'to bewitch' -e 'VOCATIVE']
-ee , -'e' suffix
[INTERROGATIVE]
This morpheme attaches to the verb in order to mark a phrase as a question. More specifically, it is used in situations where the answer is not a simple yes or no.
• Kav''ík 'swáaree? How did I sing it?
[ kav 'STEM.how' '- '1st person intransitive' 'í 'STEM.how' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person intransitive' swáari 'to sing' -ee 'INTERROGATIVE']
• Kavlím mwíi'e'? How many do you have?
[ kavlwí 'to be how much' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + m- '2nd person subject - 3rd person object' wíi 'belonging' -ee 'INTERROGATIVE']
• Kwéthch pílee? What's burning?
[ 'kwétha 'what' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + píli 'to burn' -ee 'INTERROGATIVE']
-h1 , -ha suffix
1 [INTERROGATIVE]
The irrealis morpheme -h combined with -a may be used to indicate that a sentence structured as a statement is actually a question. This morpheme may be suffixed similarly to the future tense use of -ha or, more commonly, used as a particle at the end of a phrase. (Especially type B stems, though its use has broadened)
• Kéla qéchi h-wákva 'í: " 'kwétha kav'wíchha?" 'íma. Little brother says to big brother, "What shall we do?"
[ kéla 'younger sibling' + qéchi 'to be little' + hwákva 'older sibling' + 'í 'to say' + 'kwétha 'what' + kav 'STEM.do' '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' wí 'STEM.do' -h 'INTERROGATIVE' + 'í 'to say' -ma 'ASSERTIVE' +]
• Kwésha mshíiha? What are you going to drink?
[ 'kwésha 'what ' + m- '2nd person subject - 3rd person object' shíi 'to drink' -h 'INTERROGATIVE']
• Iipárcha ha? Shall we learn?
[ iipári 'to learn' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -a 'INDEFINITE' + ha 'yes-no question particle']
2 [IRREALIS]
This morpheme conveys a meaning of irrealis, or uncertainty/indefiniteness. This is especially the case when followed by a word that is used to indicate that the speaker's assertion is based on circumstances and is not necessarily fact. It is very commonly used to describe something as happening in the future. This is especially common when combined with -a, which indicates an increase in assertiveness in regards to the preceding morpheme. Due to this, one will see -ha more often than -h when describing the future
• 'Ínohm ny'úuyk wárha I will see you later (later, I will see you again)
[ 'ínohm 'later' + ny- '1st person subject - 2nd person object' 'úu 'to see' -y 'epenthetic [j]' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + wári 'again' -h 'IRREALIS' -a 'VOCALIC INCREMENT']
• Mátch v'úuvnyktho 'váamha. I'll come at dawn, when the earth becomes visible.
[ 'mátch v'úuvi 'for the earth to become visible' nyéektho 'tomorrow' + '- '1st person intransitive' váami 'to arrive (over there)' -h 'IRREALIS' -a 'VOCALIC INCREMENT']
Note: Very often appears with vocalic incrementing suffix -a.
-i1 , -yi suffix
[VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER]
When this morpheme is added to a root, it indicates that the root is being used as a verb. This is referred to as the verb absolutive usage. When this morpheme is added to a noun, it changes the meaning of that noun to be that of a verb. This often just changes the meaning to be “to be [noun]” or “to do [noun]”, though it may alter the meaning more dramatically than that in some cases. When added to a noun that ends in an -a, the -a is dropped in favor of the -i. The process of suffixing to a noun is referred to as the denominalizer usage. (-i following a consonant, -yi following a vowel)
• 'láayi to be angry
[ '- 'NOUN FORMATIVE' laay 'ANGER' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
• chkmíiyi to be concave
[ chkmíi 'wash, creek' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
• wakváari to love
[ wa 'HEART' k- 'RELATIVIZER / AGENTIVE' var 'LOVE' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER']
-i2 , -ee
[RECURSIVE]
This morpheme indicates that the action is repeated. Often translated as "again" though it can be translated as "too" in certain contexts. (-i following a consonant, -yi following a vowel; -ee in Tolkapaya)
• Míyi! Say it again!
[ m- '2nd person subject - 3rd person object' 'í 'to say' -i 'RECURSIVE']
• Ny'úuyeem 'hánkm. It is good to see you. lit: to see you again, it is good
[ ny- '1st person subject - 2nd person object' 'úu 'to see' -i 'RECURSIVE' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + 'háni 'to be good' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
ii- , hii- prefix
[DERIVATIONAL PREFIX]
Used to derive new meanings from roots. This does not have a clear or consistent meaning but occurs most commonly on transitive verbs to indicate a causative meaning and on body part words
• iiháni to tame
[ ii- 'DERIVATIONAL PREFIX' 'háni 'to be good']
• iipári to learn
[ ii- 'DERIVATIONAL PREFIX' par 'LEARN' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER']
-k1 suffix
1 [DIRECTIONAL]
When a verb expresses motion, this morpheme can be added in order to indicate that said motion is going towards the point of reference. This point of reference will most often indicate motion towards the speaker, though it can indicate an alternate point of reference if specified otherwise.
• nálki to come down (this way)
[ nal 'DOWN' -k 'DIRECTIONAL' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
• trópki to throw, toss (this way, mainly overhand)
[ trópi 'to throw' -k 'DIRECTIONAL' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
• 'Wávk yáamchkny. They came out of the house. (towards the speaker)
[ 'wá 'house' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -k 'DIRECTIONAL' + yáami 'to go' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' -kny 'COMPLETIVE ASPECT']
2 [LOCATIVE]
This usage of the morpheme is attached to the point of reference and indicates a static location on or at that point of reference
• 'hátk wá to ride horseback
[ 'hát 'horse' -k 'LOCATIVE' + wá 'to sit']
• Myávk vchíth ''íma. I kissed you (on the mouth).
[ m- '2nd person possessive (inalienable nouns)' yá 'mouth' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -k 'LOCATIVE' + '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' vchíth 'í 'to kiss (someone's) body part' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
-k2 suffix
[SAME-SUBJECT MARKER]
In sentences with more than one verb, this morpheme is used to indicate that the same person or thing is either the one doing or the one being described by both verbs. It is generally suffixed to the first verb; however, if there are more than two verbs and it is appropriate to do so, it may also be suffixed to any non-sentence final verbs.
• 'Úutk kwáawkm. While he looked at me, he spoke.
[ 'úu 'to look on (and not do anything)' -t- 'temporal' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + kwáawi 'to talk' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• 'Hmánytk 'míik qyátkm. When I was a child, I cried a lot.
[ '- '1st person intransitive' hamányi 'to be young' -t- 'TEMPORAL' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person intransitive' míi 'to cry' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + qyáti 'to do a lot' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• Myúwk mmáchi! Come and eat!
[ m- '2nd person intransitive' yúuwi 'to come' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + m- '2nd person intransitive' máa 'to eat (something)' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
k-1 prefix
[RELATIVIZER / AGENTIVE]
Added as a prefix to a verb in order to create an agent noun or relativize a verb. This often translates to english "-er," "-ist," and "-ian," (i.e. hunter, tourist, and musician, repectively) or "the one who VERBS" and "the one who is VERB" (k-VERB-a)
• 'ha kvtée ocean
[ 'há 'water' + kvtée 'big one']
• kmyála baker
[ k- 'RELATIVIZER / AGENTIVE' myála 'bread: especially, Indian bread']
• Skára K'ámcha the Wanderer
[ skári 'to glide' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE' + k- 'RELATIVIZER / AGENTIVE' 'ámchi 'to roam' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
• yakpáava the one responsible for
[ k- 'RELATIVIZER / AGENTIVE' yapáavi 'to be in charge' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
-km , -m suffix
[INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT]
When describing the present, this morpheme attaches to the verb in order to indicate that the action has yet to be completed or that the state of being that is described is still the case. This is also used to indicate that something is happening or being described in the past. In Wipukpa, this is used to indicate all past happenings unless the speaker wishes to clarify that an action is definitively finished or is making a distinct assertion about an event.
• 'Há 'thíikm. I am drinking water. ('Há 'thíi[km].)
[ 'há 'water' + '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' thíi 'to drink' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• 'Páavch 'ichrávk spóvkm. It is apparent that the man is ill.
['páa 'person' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + 'ichrávi 'to be sick' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + spóvi 'to be apparently' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
-kny , -ny suffix
[PAST COMPLETIVE ASPECT]
This morpheme is suffixed to a verb to indicate that the speaker is speaking about the past and that the action being spoken about has been fully completed.
• Hmáanych stóora kchikámm chtúrchkny. The children rolled a marble down along the crack (in the sidewalk).
[ hamány 'child' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + stúura 'marbles' + kchikám 'crack' -m 'DIRECTIONAL' + chtúri 'to roll' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -kny 'PAST COMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• 'Wávk yáamchkny. They came out of the house. (towards the speaker)
[ 'wá 'house' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -k 'DIRECTIONAL' + yáami 'to go' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' -kny 'PAST COMPLETIVE ASPECT']
-l suffix
[INNER LOCATIVE]
When this morpheme is attached to a word, it indicates that the thing being described is happening within the point of reference or is describing a motion into the point of reference. The point of reference will be the word in which -l is attached to. This is most often translated to English as in, inside, or into.
• Hál yéem ''úuvma. I saw myself in the water.
[ 'há 'water' -l 'INNER LOCATIVE' + yéem 'oneself' + '- '1st person intransitive' 'úuvi 'to be visible' -ma 'ASSERTIVE' +]
• Nythé mátl mcháayvkm. There is hunger in that land.
[ nythé 'over there' + 'mát 'place' -l 'INNER LOCATIVE' + mcháayi 'to be hungry' -v 'PASSIVE; REFLEXIVE; RECIPROCAL' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
'm- prefix
[2nd person subject - 1st person object]
This morpheme is added to the beginning of verbs to change the meaning to 'you VERB me' or 'you all VERB me'. While one may include the words mách 'you' and ‘nyá 'me' to add clarity to the sentence, it is not required as this morpheme inherently represents those words. (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• Myáala 'mkkáavo. Buy me some bread. / Buy bread for me.
[ myála 'bread: especially, Indian bread' + 'm- '2nd person subject - 1st person object' kkáavo 'to buy for']
• Nyáchvch kav'lwím paa'm'úu? How many of us did you see? / How many of us were there that you saw?
[ 'nyáchvch 'we' + kav 'STEM.how.many' '- '1st person intransitive' lwí 'STEM.how.many' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + paa- 'PLURAL OBJECT MARKER' 'm- '2nd person subject - 1st person object' 'úu 'to see']
-m1 suffix
1 [DIRECTIONAL]
One use indicates motion directed away from, or along, a point of reference. It can be translated as 'away from' or something related to the concept of 'away from the point of reference'.
• 'Nywám vóochkny. They went out of my house.
[ '- '1st person possession (inalienable nouns)' ny- 'POSSESSIVE' 'wá 'house' -m 'DIRECTIONAL' + vóo 'to walk' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -kny 'COMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• Hmáanych stóora kchíkamm chtúrchkny. The children rolled a marble down along the crack (in the sidewalk).
[ hamány 'child' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + stúura 'marbles' + kchikám 'crack' -m 'DIRECTIONAL' + chtúri 'to roll' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -kny 'COMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• Iiwáyem 'skékvma. I bumped against the chair.
[ 'iiwáye 'chair' -m 'DIRECTIONAL' + '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' skékvi 'to bump oneself against something' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
2 [LOCATIVE]
This morpheme may act as a locative that indicates a static location at a position away from the speaker or point of reference.
• 'Smáami. I stay overnight (lit: I sleep away).
[ '- '1st person intransitive' smáa 'to sleep' -m 'LOCATIVE' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
3 [TEMPORAL LOCATIVE]
This morpheme can be attached to words relating to time in order to indicate a relation between the sentence and a specific timeframe. Though it does not have an exact translation in English, it may be thought of as 'at this time' or 'on this day'.
• 'Ínohm ny'úuyk wárha I will see you later (later, I will see you again)
[ 'ínohm 'later' + ny- '1st person subject - 2nd person object' 'úu 'to see' -y 'epenthetic [j]' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + wári 'again' -h 'IRREALIS' -a 'VOCALIC INCREMENT']
• Váam nyáam hiipáam. Today is becoming night.
[ váam 'now' + 'nyáa 'day' -m 'TIME ADVERBIAL' + hiipáa 'to be night' -m 'TIME ADVERBIAL']
4 [ASSOCIATIONAL]
This morpheme serves several functions but can be translated in most cases as 'with'. For example, it may indicate with what instrument, or tool, one completes a task. It may also indicate with whom one is doing something. This may be translated as 'and' in some cases, especially when combined with the word hwáki 'to be two, to be a pair'. Finally, it may also express meanings related to 'out of' or 'from' when referring to materials being used for a particular purpose.
• ''Ii páya 'hkwávm 'chkyátma. I cut all the wood with the knife.
[ ''íi 'wood' + páya 'all' + 'hkwá 'metal' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -m 'ASSOCIATIONAL' + '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' chkyáti 'to chop' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
• 'Nyáche Lynnm hwákk s'áara 'péemk yúm. Lynn and I went to the store.
[ 'nyách 'I' + Lynn 'Lynn' -m 'ASSOCIATIONAL' + hwáki 'to be with as a pair (with someone, or with a discrete group)' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + s'áara 'store' -h 'DEMONSTRATIVE SUFFIX' -e 'SPATIOTEMPORAL LOCATIVE' + 'péemi 'dual of yáami "to go"' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + yú 'to be' -m 'IMPERFECTIVE']
-m2 suffix
[DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER]
In sentences with more than one verb, this morpheme is used to indicate that a different person or thing is the one doing or the one being described by each separate verb. It is generally suffixed to the first verb; however, if there are more than two verbs and it is appropriate to do so, it may also be suffixed to any non-sentence final verbs. ; It also appears on a habitual or distributed activity followed by an auxiliary agreeing with it in person and number and carrying the habitual-distributive suffix -ch.
• 'Úutm kwáawkm. While he looked, he (someone else) spoke.
[ 'úu 'to look on (and not do anything)' -t- 'TEMPORAL' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + kwáawi 'to talk' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• Hmáanych láawk 'iichíi sháwa láawm yók nyhátcha. Many of the children caught little fish for pets.
[ hamány 'child' -ch 'PLURALIZER' + láawi 'to be many' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + 'iichíi 'fish' + sháwa 'young (of the species)' + láawi 'to be many' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + yó 'to take' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + nyháta 'pet' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -a 'TNS']
• Mchráavk kweqalyém mtsmáachk 'sál mkwíthkny. When you were sick and dreaming of bad things, you held my hands.
[ m- '2nd person intransitive' chrávi 'sick' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + kwee 'SOMETHING' qlyépi 'to be bad' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + m- '2nd person subject - 3rd person object' tsmáachi 'to dream about' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person possession (inalienable nouns)' sál 'hand' + m- '2nd person subject - 3rd person object' kwíthi 'to hold' -kny 'COMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• Swáarm 'íchk 'ím. He always sings.
[ swáari 'to sing' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + 'íchi 'always' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + 'í 'to say' -m 'IMPERFECTIVE']
m-1 prefix
1 [2nd person intransitive]
This morpheme is added to the beginning of verbs to change the meaning to 'you VERB' or 'you all VERB'. While one may include the word mách 'you' to add clarity to the sentence, it is not required as this morpheme inherently represents that word. Since descriptors are verbs in Yavapai, this is the morpheme that would be used to indicate that the speaker is describing the listener.
(Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• Mách mvyámi. You run.
[ mách 'you' + m- '2nd person intransitive' vyámi 'to run']
• Vwáavk m'sítee? Are there eleven of you? / Are you eleven in number?
[ vwáavi 'ten' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + m- '2nd person intransitive' 'síti 'one' -ee 'INTERROGATIVE']
2 [2nd person subject - 3rd person object]
This morpheme is added to the beginning of verbs to change the meaning to 'you VERB him/her/it/that' or 'you all VERB him/her/it/that'. While one may include the word mách 'you' to add clarity to the sentence, it is not required as this morpheme inherently represents that word. When discussing a non-specific thing, nythá 'him', 'her', 'it' may be left off but a word or pronoun is necessary when referring to a specific thing being affected. (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• Mya'háanee? Did you fix it? / Did you tame it?
[ m- '2nd person subject - 3rd person object' yaháani 'to fix' -ee 'INTERROGATIVE']
3 [3rd person subject - 2nd person object]
This morpheme is added to the beginning of verbs to change the meaning to 'he/she/it VERBS you' or 'they VERB you'. While one may include the words nythách 'he', 'she', 'it', 'that one' and má 'you' to add clarity to the sentence, it is not required as this morpheme inherently represents those words. (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• Twíim paam'úuk yúny. He saw some of you.
[ twíim 'some' + paa- 'PLURAL OBJECT MARKER' m- '3rd person subject - 2nd person object' 'úu 'to see' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + yú 'to be' -ny 'PERFECTIVE']
4 [2nd person possessive (inalienable nouns)]
your (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• Mmlqínych ráve? Does your throat hurt?
[ m- '2nd person possessive (inalienable nouns)' mlqí 'neck' -ny 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + rávi 'to hurt' -ee 'INTERROGATIVE']
-ma
[ASSERTIVE]
This morpheme attaches to the final verb in order to mark the proposition being made as an explicit assertion on the part of the speaker. This is most often used when the speaker is indicating that they are offering an opinion or drawing conclusions.
• Kwinyvóm 'e'yíima. I like it when it rains.
[ Kwi 'STEM.rain' ny- 'TEMPORAL SUBORDINATOR' vó 'STEM.rain' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + 'e 'STEM.like' '- '1st person intransitive' yíi 'STEM.like' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
• M'évk m'yíima! Serves you right!
-ny1 suffix
1 [DEMONSTRATIVE]
This demonstrative morpheme indicates that a specific object or person is being spoken about, though that object is at a small distance in space. This morpheme contrasts with -h and -v through the distance at which it refers to; -ny and -nyu specify that the marked person, place, or thing is farther away than -v does but still within sight unlike -h. This is often translated as 'that' or 'the'.
• Mchtány káv 'í? What did your father say?
[ m- '2nd person possessive (inalienable nouns)' chtá 'father (referential)' -ny 'DEMONSTRATIVE' + kav'í 'to say what']
2 [CONJUNCTION]
This morpheme indicates inclusion in an action or state of being. It is translated to English as 'too' or 'also' and may be used in similar contexts.
• Myáamnyk walmyíi? Do you want to go also?
[ m- '2nd person intransitive' yáami 'to go' -ny 'CONJUNCTION' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + wal 'STEM.want' m- '2nd person intransitive' yíi 'STEM.want']
• 'Nyách 'yáamnyk wal'yíima. I want to go too. / I'm planning to go too.
-ny2 suffix
[PERFECTIVE]
This morpheme is suffixed to a verb to indicate that the speaker is speaking about the past and that the action being spoken about has been fully completed. This morpheme functions the same as -kny but appears more commonly on auxiliary words such as yú 'to be', ‘í 'to say', and wí 'to do'.
• Nyáah-wakm ''úuk 'yúny. I saw him at two o'clock.
[ nyaahwáki 'to be two o'clock' -m 'TIME ADVERBIAL' + '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' 'úu 'to see' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person intransitive' yú 'to be' -ny 'PERFECTIVE']
• Steve hanáka ''éek 'wíny. I gave Steve a necklace.
[ Steve 'Steve' + hanák 'necklace' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE' + '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' 'ée 'to give (something) to' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person intransitive' wí 'to do' -ny 'PERFECTIVE']
ny-1 prefix
1 [POSSESSIVE]
This marks an alienable noun as being possessed. Alienable nouns in Yavapai include things that are generally separable from one's own body or being. This includes most people, places, or things that do not fall under the categories of body parts, kinship terms, and articles of clothing.
This morpheme appears following the appropriate possessive marker on 1st (my, our) and 2nd person (your) possessive constructions. (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word. While this may be included in the possessive forms describing things like body parts and kin, it is not required. It is used in most possessive phrases that are describing the possession of non-body part or kin objects, places, and people.)
• 'Nymólch Jordan. My name is Jordan.
[ '- '1st person possession (inalienable nouns)' ny- 'POSSESSIVE' móla 'name' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + Jordan 'Jordan']
2 [1st person subject - 2nd person object]
This morpheme is added to the beginning of verbs to change the meaning to 'I VERB you' or 'we VERB you'. While one may include the words ‘nyách 'I' and má 'you' to add clarity to the sentence, it is not required as this morpheme inherently represents those words. (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• 'Enyyíikm. I love you.
[ 'E 'STEM.love' ny- '1st person subject - 2nd person object' yíi 'STEM.love' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
3 [3rd person subject - 1st person object]
This morpheme is added to the beginning of verbs to change the meaning to 'he/she/it VERBS me' or 'they VERB me'. While one may include the words nythách 'he', 'she', 'it', 'that one' and ‘nyá 'me' to add clarity to the sentence, it is not required as this morpheme inherently represents those words. (Will appear in place of a * when a template form is given, otherwise appears at the beginning of a word)
• Sál nyyóma. He shook hands with me.
[ sál 'hand' + ny- '3rd person subject - 1st person object' yó 'to take' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
• Nyswálma. He really likes me.
[ ny- '3rd person subject - 1st person object' swáli 'to love' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
-o , -wo suffix
[APPLICATIVE; CAUSATIVE]
When this morpheme is attached to a word, it replaces -i and allows the verb to affect one more person or thing. This can be translated in several different ways though it is often translated to English as “to”, "for", or “make”, as in "I VERB for you". (-o following a consonant, -wo following a vowel)
• kkísko to slip because of (someone)
[ kkíski 'to slip and fall' -o 'APPLICATIVE-BENEFACTIVE; CAUSATIVE']
• knáavo to tell to
[ knáavi 'to tell ' -o 'APPLICATIVE-BENEFACTIVE; CAUSATIVE']
• vpí 'íwo to make (someone) faint
[ v- 'INCHOATIVE; PUNCTUAL' pí 'to die' + 'í 'to say' -o 'APPLICATIVE-BENEFACTIVE; CAUSATIVE']
• wasmyéwo to make (someone) worry about (something)
[ wasmyé 'to worry about' -o 'APPLICATIVE-BENEFACTIVE; CAUSATIVE']
-oo , -o suffix
[LOCATIONAL NOMINALIZER]
This morpheme is suffixed to roots and words in order to derive a meaning related to the physical location at which that word is done, used, or located. This is often translated as “place where…” It may appear as either -oo or just -o and replaces the absolutive (-a or -i) when attached to a word. It also frequently occurs with the pluralizer -ch, with the -ch preceding this -oo morpheme.
• hathpúycho bathroom
[ 'há thpúyi 'to bathe' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -oo 'LOCATIONAL NOMINALIZER']
• klkyócho jail
[ klkyó 'to arrest' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -oo 'LOCATIONAL NOMINALIZER']
• sál 'hánoo right side
[ sál 'hand' + '- 'NOUN FORMATIVE' han 'GOOD, PRETTY' -oo 'LOCATIONAL SUFFIX']
• tarháaroo workplace
[ tarhaar 'WORK (from sp. 'trabajar')' -oo 'LOCATIONAL NOMINALIZER']
paa- prefix
[PLURAL OBJECT MARKER]
This morpheme is added to the beginning of a verb to indicate that there are multiple people or things receiving or otherwise being affected by the action of the sentence. This can give the meaning of 'us', 'you all', or 'them' depending on the person marking used. (required with human plural objects, but not for other objects)
• Hamukmspém paany'úuma. I saw eight of you.
[ Hamuk 'STEM.eight' m- '2nd person intransitive' spé 'STEM.eight' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + paa- 'PLURAL OBJECT MARKER' ny- '1st person subject - 2nd person object' 'úu 'to see' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
• Hwíi nwáaha páya paam'úu! Hmmm… look at all my friends.
[ hwí 'what! (exclamation of surprise)' + nwáaha 'friend' + páya 'all' + paa- 'PLURAL OBJECT MARKER' m- '2nd person subject - 3rd person object' 'úu 'to see']
• Paanypíwoma. He died for us.
[ paa- 'PLURAL OBJECT MARKER' ny- '3rd person subject - 1st person object' píwo 'to die for' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
-ra , -rav suffix
[INTENSIFIER; EMPHATIC]
This morpheme attaches to the root or stem of a verb, especially a descriptive one, in order to indicate an increase in the force of that verb. This is most often translated into English as 'very', 'really', or 'only'.
• Mtláahvravma. You're very tired.
[ m- '2nd person intransitive' tláahvi 'to be tired' -ra 'INTENSIFIER; EMPHATIC' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
s- prefix
[LATERAL CAUSATIVE]
This morpheme is used to indicate that the action being described by the root or word is done in a lateral manner. It also indicates that the lateral action is being caused by the subject, or doer of the action.
• s'ámi to close
[ s- 'CAUSATIVE (laterally move together or apart)' 'am 'MOVE (around or about)' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
-t suffix
[LARGER (animals)]
This morpheme is attached to the names of animals to derive the name of another animal that is similar but the larger of the two animals. The noun absolutive -a is then attached after this -t.
• mhwáta bear
[ mhwáa 'javalina' -t 'LARGER (animals)' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
• qwáqta cow
[ 'qwáaqa 'deer' -t 'LARGER (animals)' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
-t-
[TEMPORAL COORDINATOR]
This morpheme attaches to verbs to coordinate two actions that are happening in relation to one another. It is translated into English as 'when' or 'while'.
• 'Úutk kwáawkm. While he looked at me, he spoke.
[ 'úu 'to look on (and not do anything)' -t- 'temporal' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + kwáawi 'to talk' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
• 'Hmánytk 'míik qyátkm. When I was a child, I cried a lot.
[ '- '1st person intransitive' hamányi 'to be young' -t- 'TEMPORAL' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person intransitive' míi 'to cry' -k 'SAME-SUBJECT MARKER' + qyáti 'to do a lot' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']
t-1 prefix
1 [ITERATIVE]
When this t- is attached to a verb or root, it indicates that action of the verb is, or was, repeated many times in one instance. Frequently translates to "always," "frequently," or "generally."
• ttmóo to scratch repetitively
[ t- 'ITERATIVE' tmóo 'to scratch (someone's back, for example)']
2 [PLURAL]
Indicates plurality (no longer productive)
t-2 prefix
[CAUSATIVE]
Indicates that an action being done by the verb or the state being described by the verb is being caused by the subject, or the doer of the action.
• t'rúuyi to heat
[ t- 'CAUSATIVE' 'rúuyi 'to be hot']
• tmyúuli to sweeten
[ t- 'CAUSATIVE' myúuli 'to be sweet']
-v1 suffix
[PASSIVE; MIDDLE; REFLEXIVE; RECIPROCAL]
This morpheme indicates that the verb is affecting one less person or thing. Its two primary purposes are to indicate passiveness (passive and middle voice) and to indicate reflexivity (reflexive and reciprocal interpretations). It can be interpreted in several ways, and often words derived with this morpheme have more than one interpretation depending on the context surrounding its use.
• chkyátvi to be cut
[ chkyáti 'to chop' -v 'PASSIVE; REFLEXIVE; RECIPROCAL' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
• schóqvi to be mashed
[ schóqi 'to mash' -v 'PASSIVE; REFLEXIVE; RECIPROCAL' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
• wasmyévi to worry
[ wasmyé 'to worry about' -v 'PASSIVE; REFLEXIVE; RECIPROCAL' -i 'VERB ABSOLUTIVE; DENOMINALIZER; RECURSIVE']
-v2 suffix
[DEMONSTRATIVE]
This demonstrative morpheme indicates that a specific object or person is being spoken about, though that object is nearby in either time or space. This is the most common demonstrative suffix in Yavapai; its use is fairly broad and fills the general sense of 'the' in English, but it also denotes some level of spatial or temporal nearness. This morpheme expresses the meaning of 'the specific one', usually with an emphasis on the attached noun being near the speaker physically or conceptually, and may be translated more simply as 'a', 'the', or 'this'. This morpheme cannot appear word-finally, so in these cases it must be further suffixed with a case marker (usually followed by a case marker)
• 'Hávch vlóo 'íma. The water is flowing slowly.
[ 'há 'water' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + vlóo 'í 'to flow slowly' -ma 'ASSERTIVE' + +]
• 'Iismáava valnyscháachm 'yóma. They gave me the medicine on credit, and I took it.
[ 'iismáa 'medicine' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE' + val 'STEM.give.on.credit' ny- '3rd person subject - 1st person object' scháa 'STEM.give.on.credit' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -m 'DIFFERENT-SUBJECT MARKER' + '- '1st person subject - 3rd person object' yó 'to take' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
• Kthár hévche ríwríwma. The dog's tail is wagging.
[ kthár 'dog' + hé 'tail' -v 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + ríwríwi 'to wag (of a tail)' -ma 'ASSERTIVE']
Note: Occasionally translated as "that" instead of "the" or "a"
v-1 prefix
[INCHOATIVE-PUNCTUAL]
Expresses the beginning of an action, typically of its own accord, and is often translated as "becomes…"
• vráav 'í to have a sudden pain
[ v- 'inchoative/punctual' rávi 'to hurt' + 'í 'to say']
• v'úuvi to become visible
[ v- 'INCHOATIVE; PUNCTUAL' 'úuvi 'to be visible']
• Mátch v'úuvnyktho 'váamha. I'll come at dawn, when the earth becomes visible.
[ 'mátch v'úuvi 'for the earth to become visible' nyéektho 'tomorrow' + '- '1st person intransitive' váami 'to arrive (over there)' -h 'IRREALIS' -a 'VOCALIC INCREMENT']
-w suffix
[DEMONSTRATIVE]
This demonstrative morpheme indicates that a specific object or person is being spoken about. It may be translated as 'the specific NOUN' or 'a specific NOUN'. (appears relatively infrequently and may often be a variant of the demonstrative -v)
• 'ichrée ny'wíwa my doll
[ 'ichréeye 'doll' + ny- 'POSSESSIVE' '- '1st person possession (inalienable nouns)' wíi 'belonging' -w 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -a 'NOUN ABSOLUTIVE']
-wa suffix
[DEMONSTRATIVE]
This demonstrative morpheme indicates that a speaker is talking about a specific thing that is no longer existing. Though this lacks an English equivalent, it may be translated as 'the former one' or 'the formerly existing one'.
• 'Iichíi nyyóochowach rúuykm. The place we used to fish is drying up.
[ 'iichíi 'fish' ny- 'POSSESSIVE' -ch 'PLURALIZER' -oo 'LOCATIONAL SUFFIX' -wa 'DEMONSTRATIVE' -ch 'SUBJECT CASE' + rúuvi 'to be dry' -km 'INCOMPLETIVE ASPECT']